Studies that specifically investigate Japanese anime as the medium for PSR formation, including PSI processes relevant to PSR development.

Studies focusing on PSRs with characters from cartoons, comics, video games, virtual influencers, or live-action media.

A PSR is a one-sided psychological bond where an individual feels connected to a media character, including an anime character, without mutual interaction or real-life communication.

Anime is a style of animated entertainment originating from Japan, characterized by diverse genres, vivid artistry, and distinctive storytelling techniques. It encompasses television series, films, and web animations that often blend fantasy, science fiction, and cultural themes, appealing to a wide range of audiences globally.

“Parasocial relationship” AND “anime” OR “Japanese Animation”

((((Parasocial relationship[Title/Abstract] OR para-social relationship[Title/Abstract] AND anime[Title/Abstract] OR Japanese animation[Title/Abstract]) NOT (virtual media[Title/Abstract])) NOT (social media[Title/Abstract])) NOT (fictional characters[Title/Abstract])) NOT (cartoon[Title/Abstract]).

“Parasocial relationship” AND “anime” OR “Japanese animation”

“Parasocial relationship” AND “anime” OR “Japanese animation”

The process of identification was found to deepen PSRs, as viewers projected themselves onto characters they admired. [60] showed that U.S. Audiences often identified with the moral and emotional traits of shōjo heroines (anime character), using them as role models. This finding is supported by Social Comparison Theory, which explains how viewers evaluate themselves in relation to media figures, using PSRs that are associated with their aspirations, morality, and self-concept.

Regular and heavy anime viewing was correlated with stronger PSRs. As Pua [41] suggested, long-term exposure leads to the internalization of character values and worldviews, particularly among female viewers. Over time, these repeated interactions build enduring psychological bonds, consistent with Cultivation Theory, where media consumption gradually is associated with perceptions, beliefs, and emotional investment in fictional figures.

Individual personality traits also play a role in PSR strength. Reysen et al. [42] found that cosplayers displayed higher levels of extraversion, openness, and neuroticism, which correlated with deeper parasocial attachment. These traits encourage greater self-expression, creativity, and social engagement through fandom activities, strengthening the emotional salience of PSRs.

Shariffadeen et al. [46] and Gonçalves et al. [19] highlighted how PSRs foster a sense of belonging and community, especially during periods of isolation like the COVID-19 pandemic. Fans reported using anime-based PSRs to substitute real-life interactions, reinforcing Cultivation Theory’s view that repeated exposure to media narratives cultivates emotionally meaningful attachments that meet social needs. Anime fandom, therefore, functions as a substitute social space, providing a sense of shared emotional connection and a collective identity.

Anime characters often act as social models, guiding viewers’ behavior and values through identification and imitation. As shown in Zafira et al. [56], Gen Z fans tend to mimic speech, dress, and social behavior of admired characters, leading to increased social participation and peer bonding. These interactions reflect Social Influence Theory, wherein fans internalize character norms and community dynamics, reinforcing shared identity and cultural expression within anime fandoms [30]

Emotional support and stress management emerged as central functions of PSRs. Individuals use their emotional connections with anime characters to cope with anxiety and loneliness, gaining perspective and comfort from characters' narratives. These findings align with Parasocial Interaction Theory and Behavior Theory, which recognize the therapeutic and regulatory potential of mediated relationships, particularly for individuals with limited real-life support systems [30, 46]

Anime-based PSRs were identified as catalysts for introspection and self-improvement. According to Kakarla & Aiswarya [30], fans often engage with characters as mirrors for personal reflection, drawing life lessons and inspiration for goal-setting. These emotionally meaningful interactions promote resilience and self-awareness, particularly for those with lower self-esteem who may seek validation and guidance from fictional companions. Heavy anime viewers, especially female students were shown to align their worldviews and values with their favorite characters. These PSRs offered inspiration for personal growth and long-term behavioral modelling [41].

Parasocial bonds significantly affect consumer behavior. Khatami et al. [32] found that emotional attachment to anime characters, amplified by fear of missing out (FOMO), increased purchase intentions for related merchandise. These behaviors reflect the commercial implications of PSRs, where emotional investment translates into economic decisions associated with identity, community influence, and loyalty.

Beyond immediate emotional regulation, PSRs function as long-term coping strategies. Fans often revisit episodes or characters to find comfort during difficult times, using these interactions as a form of escapism and resilience-building [30, 46]. These mechanisms align with Behavior Theory and Parasocial Interaction Theory, which acknowledge how emotional routines and symbolic companionships can serve protective psychological functions.

Table 3 presents the identified themes, corresponding codes, supporting studies, and key findings. Figure 2 indicates the frequency of studies supporting each theme identified in the review, highlighting differences in empirical support across themes. Greater emphasis was observed for coping mechanisms/stress relief and sense of belonging, whereas fewer studies supported themes such as long-term anime consumption and self-discovery. Figure 3 depicts the hierarchical organization of themes. The thematic synthesis of nine empirical studies revealed a hierarchy of key factors contributing to the development of anime-based parasocial relationships (PSRs), prioritised by their frequency across studies and their functional significance within the broader theoretical framework.

Fig. 2

No of studies supporting the themes identified and themes

Table 3

Themes table

Fig. 3

Hierarchy of themes

Table 4 compares how five major theories, cultivation theory, parasocial interaction theory, social influence theory, social comparison theory, and social cognitive theory, explain different aspects of anime viewers’ experiences. It summarises how factors like long-term watching, emotional attachment to characters, peer influence, comparing oneself to others, and learning from characters shape fans’ feelings, identity, and behaviours.

Table 4

Theoretical framework

Coping and stress relief emerged as key themes, with several studies showing that anime characters offer comfort during emotional distress, forming stable parasocial bonds that aid resilience. Emotional regulation was also prominent, as fans use these connections to process feelings, experience catharsis, and learn emotion management, especially when offline support is lacking. Additionally, identification and projection help viewers internalize character traits and values, influencing self-perception and goals, in line with social comparison theory.

The third tier of themes, each cited by three studies, includes sense of belonging, social behavior, personality, self-discovery, and purchasing intention. PSRs foster feelings of inclusion within fandoms, influence communication and values, and are linked with traits like openness and extraversion. They also support introspection and personal growth, while emotional bonds and FOMO drive merchandise purchases. Less common theme include long-term anime viewing, which deepens PSRs over time.

Overall, the most influential themes, coping, emotional regulation, and identification, are grounded in core interpersonal and behavioral mechanisms. Mid-tier themes extend these dynamics into social, expressive, and economic domains. These findings explain anime-generated PSRs as psychologically rich, socially embedded, and behaviorally influential constructs that closely mirror real-life relationships and emotional functions.

Social behavior plays a key role in shaping PSRs, especially in the context of anime [56]. These one-sided relationships often reflect how people behave in real-life social situations. PSRs with anime characters may meet emotional needs, help people feel connected, and give them a sense of belonging. As a result, they mirror many aspects of real-world relationships and significantly influence both psychological and interpersonal development.

PSRs help individuals regulate their emotions, especially during times of stress or emotional difficulty. Just like real friendships, these relationships offer comfort and support, helping people cope more effectively [30]. In addition, many anime fans strongly identify with certain characters and use these bonds as a form of escapism. This connection can provide emotional relief and are linked with better mental health by offering a safe space to explore feelings and experiences [30, 47].

PSRs also play an important role in interpersonal dynamics. According to the Social Surrogacy Hypothesis, parasocial connections can act as substitutes when real-life relationships are lacking or unfulfilling. In such cases, fans may rely on these bonds to reduce feelings of loneliness and satisfy their need for emotional closeness [20]. Moreover, the way individuals form and value PSRs often reflects how they behave in actual relationships. These behavioral patterns may influence their decision-making and the overall quality of their social interactions [21].

Attachment theory further explains how early life experiences influence the development of both parasocial and real relationships. The way people form attachments in childhood affects their communication skills and emotional needs in adulthood, which also indicates how they connect with fictional characters [29]. PSRs frequently enhance emotional regulation, reduce loneliness, and foster resilience by providing safe relational models, particularly for those with insecure attachments, leading to improved real-world social functioning over time [26, 34, 54]. However, while PSRs can offer emotional comfort and stability, they may also have negative consequences. For instance, fans may experience feelings of grief or loss when a favorite character dies or a series ends, highlighting the emotional depth and complexity of these relationships [42]. This duality underscores PSRs' therapeutic potential alongside their risks.

Emotional regulation significantly suggests links to PSRs with anime characters, acting as emotional outlets for stress management and emotional balance, particularly benefiting those facing isolation or distress. PSRs may serve as effective coping mechanisms, with viewers finding solace and regulating negative emotions through identification with characters and immersion in narratives, leading to emotional stability [30]. This emotional comfort may also influence real-life interpersonal behaviors like empathy and patience.

Attachment theory suggests that individuals with insecure attachment styles (anxious or avoidant) may rely more heavily on PSRs as a substitute for real-life emotional support, using them to fulfill unmet emotional needs and compensate for difficulties in regulating emotions within actual social interactions [36].

Interpersonal communication models explain how emotional regulation within PSRs can extend to real-life social behavior. Individuals may adopt similar emotional coping strategies, such as seeking reassurance, based on habits developed through parasocial experiences [35]. Furthermore, observing emotional exchanges in anime characters fosters emotional learning, informing viewers' own communication patterns and emotional expressions [30]. While PSRs can support emotional resilience, over-reliance may hinder the development of healthy real-life relationships. If fictional bonds become a primary source of emotional regulation, it can reduce motivation for genuine social engagement, underscoring the need to balance parasocial involvement with real-world interactions for adaptive emotional strategies.

The sense of belonging plays a crucial role in shaping PSRs with anime characters, bridging psychological needs and interpersonal experiences. These one-sided relationships often provide emotional support and foster a feeling of community, which are essential for individual well-being and social integration [25]. The sense of belonging created through these connections can also mitigate loneliness, fulfilling the innate human need for social connection [30].

PSRs often extend beyond the screen into shared fan communities. These communities foster social bonds and provide a platform for interaction, which can boost group-based self-esteem and collective identity. Online engagement, such as novel posting in anime fan groups, further strengthens virtual social ties and promotes a sense of psychological integration into these digital spaces [22]. However, while PSRs can offer meaningful emotional benefits and a sense of inclusion, there is a potential downside. Over-reliance on fictional relationships may reduce motivation or capacity to form fulfilling real-world connections. This duality underscores the complexity of belonging, which exists simultaneously in both virtual and physical social environments [3].

While social contexts and interpersonal dynamics are linked with the external environment in which parasocial relationships emerge, their formation and maintenance are also driven by internal psychological processes that influence how individuals perceive, interpret, and emotionally engage with anime characters.

Identification and projection are key psychological mechanisms that influence anime-generated PSRs, contributing to both emotional bonding and social learning. Through identification, viewers see aspects of themselves in anime characters and emotionally align with their narratives, which fosters deeper connection and imitation of admired traits. Projection allows individuals to place personal thoughts, desires, or emotions onto characters, making the parasocial experience more immersive and emotionally meaningful. These processes often fulfill psychological needs such as validation, emotional support, and identity exploration. For individuals with insecure attachments or limited social interaction, PSRs created through identification and projection can serve as symbolic substitutes for real-world relationships. This interplay appears to influence viewers’ communication patterns, relational expectations, and self-concept in real-life social contexts (Rammasubramanian & Kornfield, 2012) [5, 12].

Personality traits such as extraversion, agreeableness, and openness to experience significantly influence the formation of PSRs, as individuals high in these traits are more likely to develop strong emotional bonds with anime characters evident in findings by Reysen et al. [42], who observed that cosplayers, compared to non-cosplayers, scored higher on these traits, supporting their deeper attachment to media figures.

Extroverts may seek emotional connection with characters to meet social needs, while agreeable individuals empathize easily, enhancing emotional bonds. Openness to experience supports deeper engagement with anime due to curiosity and appreciation of stories [4, 44]. People with personality disorders may also turn to PSRs. Specifically, avoidant individuals may prefer fictional characters over real relationships, while narcissistic traits may lead fans to idealize powerful characters as reflections of self-image. Extraverted and agreeable individuals are more likely to engage socially and strengthen group bonds [30, 44]. The way fans talk about their PSRs also reflects personality. For example, highly neurotic fans express more emotional intensity, while agreeable individuals emphasize warmth and support [11, 44].

Social Penetration Theory suggests that relationships deepen through gradual self-disclosure and emotional vulnerability. In PSRs, fans feel close to anime characters as stories reveal their inner thoughts and struggles, creating a sense of intimacy. This mirrors real-life relationship development, showing clear parallels between parasocial and interpersonal communication patterns [11, 44]. Understanding the role of personality in PSRs is important for mental health. While these bonds can be supportive, over-reliance may limit real-life interactions, especially in individuals with certain traits or attachment styles [30].

Turner [53] posits that self-esteem influences the strength and nature of PSRs, where individuals with higher self-esteem view these relationships as supplementary emotional support, while those with lower self-esteem may develop more intense connections due to a need for validation. Kakarla & Aiswarya [30] further elaborate that PSRs, particularly with anime characters, facilitate self-reflection, allowing individuals to explore their goals and values in a non-threatening environment. This engagement can enhance self-disclosure and intimacy in real-world relationships.

Higher self-esteem individuals utilize PSRs as an emotional enhancement tool, whereas lower self-esteem individuals often seek validation through intense PSRs, leading to deeper emotional attachments [10]. Engaging with anime characters can indicate increased self-disclosure and improvements in interpersonal relationships, as individuals reflect on their emotions and experiences through these fictional connections [30].

PSR with anime characters acts as a helpful coping strategy for anime lovers. Fans find comfort in rewatching favorite episodes and maintaining emotional support from the characters. They draw inspiration from the strength of these characters, especially from their strivings and the hope to finally be able to persevere in them [30].

Fans attribute the distraction from their concerns and emotional comfort from being drowned in the imaginary anime worlds as something that keeps them distracted from their worries and provides an emotional comfort when things get too stressful. This would complement research, which points out that not only social but also parasocial connections assist in managing stress. By relating to characters within anime offers a mental escape, reduces anxiety, and helps fans cope with daily pressures. It is, therefore, a large source of emotional comfort. By identifying with anime characters and engaging in fandom discussions, viewers practice articulating their emotions, sharing experiences, and developing empathy skills that are transferable to real-world relationships. These interactions within fan communities provide additional layers of social support, reinforcing the coping function of PSRs and fostering a sense of belonging. Blurring of boundaries between fiction and reality may indicate unrealistic expectations of relationships or emotional dependence on fictional characters.

In addition to psychological mechanisms, motivational factors further explain why individuals actively seek, sustain, and intensify parasocial relationships with anime characters over time.

Research provides valuable insights into the factors influencing PSRs and their effects on purchase intention. The shared experience of fandom fosters social bonds, leading to collective purchasing behaviors, such as buying merchandise to signify group identity [30, 32]. Similarity and interactivity with influencers can enhance attachment, thereby increasing purchase intentions, as fans feel a deeper connection to the products endorsed by these figures [45]. While PSRs can drive purchase intentions, it is essential to consider that not all individuals may engage similarly. Factors such as personal attachment styles and the nature of the PSR may be associated with diverse consumer behaviors, highlighting the complexity of these relationships in real-world contexts.

Pua [41] shows that long-term exposure to anime has a strong impact on PSRs, which explains the relationship between media exposure and emotional bonding. Anime-generated PSRs provide a platform for emotional regulation and stress relief, serving as a coping mechanism for viewers. This is particularly relevant in the context of escapism and identification with characters, which can help individuals manage real-world stressors. The attachment to anime characters can mirror real-world attachment styles, providing a safe space for individuals to explore relationships without the risks associated with real-life interactions [30]. Despite some associations with social disconnectedness, anime consumption can enhance social joy and reduce feelings of loneliness by fostering a sense of community and shared interests among fans [23].

Anime consumption influences perceptions of social interaction, as seen in the Third-Person Effect, where individuals perceive media effects on others more than on themselves, impacting their socialization and communication skills [6]. While anime consumption can foster positive PSRs and community belonging, it also poses risks of problematic behavior, particularly among adolescents. This includes potential behavioral addiction and increased social anxiety, highlighting the need for a balanced approach to anime consumption [24].

Together, these findings indicate that the factors discussed are best understood through multiple, interacting mechanisms rather than isolated factors.