Biosecurity practices, which include foot baths, wearing protective clothing, and removing pruned leaves and diseased plants, are standard in most horticultural greenhouse operations [28]; these practices should be implemented for cannabis growing operations. In addition, it is important to establish a quarantine protocol in cases where plant materials, such as unrooted cuttings or whole plants, are brought in from an external source [2]. Such precautionary measures can prevent pathogen introduction and are standard biosecurity protocols in commercial crop production [29]. When applied to cannabis, this necessitates an isolation period of 3–4 weeks, during which plants are monitored for disease symptoms and tested for the presence of potential viruses and other pathogens [6]. Testing for cannabis pathogens can be achieved by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methodologies, and testing for viruses or viroids can be achieved using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR); many laboratories currently offer this service for an array of cannabis pathogens [4,6,7]. After the plants are confirmed to be free of detectable pathogens, they can be used for commercial propagation. Infected plants should be destroyed.

Environmental management is a component of IDM across all stages of cannabis growth since climatic conditions can influence both plant growth as well as pathogen growth. Standard cannabis cultivation environmental setpoints, which are established for baseline pathogen management during low disease pressure periods, have been described [15,30]. Conditions that are unfavorable for disease development while at the same time supporting optimal plant growth are required. This often necessitates lowering temperature and humidity levels below the optimal set points for plant development in order to reduce the vapour pressure deficit (VPD) in the crop environment during periods of high disease pressure. Optimal environmental conditions vary across the different developmental stages of cannabis. In the cloning or seedling stage, temperatures should be kept between 20 °C and 24 °C with relative humidity above 90%. For the stock plant and vegetative stages, temperatures should range from 25 °C to 28 °C to promote rapid growth, with relative humidity maintained between 65% and 75% (equating to a VPD of 1.1 to 0.94). During the flowering stage, temperatures should be set between 23 °C and 28 °C to facilitate the transfer of photosynthates to the flowers, with relative humidity between 50% and 70% (resulting in a VPD of 1.4 to 1.13). These environmental parameters can be achieved by modifying venting, heating, and air circulation strategies [30]. Seasonal adjustments may also need to be made, as warmer temperatures with higher humidity in the summer months may increase the incidence of root-infecting pathogens, such as Fusarium and Pythium species. Similarly, cooler and more humid conditions during winter seasons may enhance the development of powdery mildew infections. The impact of environmental conditions on HLVd development is currently unknown.

Thorough sanitation of the growing environment before planting a new cannabis crop is important to reduce residual pathogen inoculum, which can be spread by water or air or on tools and potentially on clothing, gloves, or shoes. This is a common practice used on most greenhouse crops, especially where viruses are of concern [6,28]. To reduce pathogen transmission, all surfaces and equipment, as well as gutters, tables, floors, drip emitters, and pots, should be cleaned by using reduced-risk sanitary products. These products include hydrogen peroxide with peracetic acid (Sanidate^® or Zerotol^®), dodecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (Chemprocide^® or KleenGrow^®), isopropyl alcohol, and bleach [6]. The efficacy of these products in inhibiting pathogen growth can vary depending on the pathogen, product, and concentrations used. A comparison of two products used at four concentrations against the growth of two pathogens is shown in Figure 6a,b. At increasing concentrations, both Zerotol^® and hypochlorous acid (a product containing 1000 ppm that was diluted) reduced pathogen growth, but Pythium showed a greater sensitivity compared to Fusarium (Figure 6c). These products can also potentially negatively affect the growth of beneficial Trichoderma species applied as biocontrol agents (Figure 6d). Therefore, care must be taken to consider the potential impact of applying reduced-risk products in conjunction with biocontrol products. These types of evaluations are important to conduct for any reduced-risk product targeted for the cannabis market to demonstrate efficacy and possible non-target effects.

Early detection of disease symptoms in stock plants is important to prevent pathogens from spreading within the growing environment. There are several diagnostic approaches that have been described to detect cannabis pathogens, and a number of commercial laboratories provide testing services for a range of pathogens [4,7,19,26]. The practice of culling and replenishing stock plants is a standard component of IDM programs when diseased plants are detected [31]. Stock plants should be replaced after several (3–4) months of production with new, pathogen-free plants, which is key to maintaining a healthy and vigorous stock plant population. Plants infected with Fusarium, Pythium, or HLVd should be promptly removed from a facility. Eradication of diseased plants, particularly those infected with HLVd, is essential. When regular (weekly) pathogen testing is followed by the destruction of those plants infected by HLVd, a gradual decline in the occurrence of diseased stock plants can be achieved (Figure 7). After many rounds of testing performed over a 6-month period, this strategy was shown to reduce HLVd frequency in stock plants from 22% to 1% (Figure 7). Peaks of infection can still be seen, which are attributed to the re-introduction of diseased plant material that went undetected initially and was inadvertently used as a source of cuttings. Removing this material upon detection resulted in the continued downward trend of infection.

The utility of disease-tolerant genotypes that may have been developed through selective breeding and genotype screening is an important aspect of IDM for stock plants. Disease-tolerant genotypes of cannabis have been identified for a number of pathogens, including root rot (Fusarium oxysporum) [23], powdery mildew (Golovinomyces ambrosiae) [10,11,12,32], leaf blight (Neofusicoccum parvum) [33], and bud rot (B. cinerea) [34,35] (Figure 8). Recent research suggests that specific defense genes may play a role in certain host–pathogen interactions, leading to a resistant phenotype [11,12,13,36]. The impact of cannabis genotype on disease development at the flowering stage will be discussed later in this review. Continued evaluation of cannabis genotypes for pathogen response is a critical component of an IDM program.

During the propagation stage, ensuring that cuttings are obtained from healthy stock plants reduces the probability of pathogens being transferred through these cuttings. In particular, the incidence of F. oxysporum is reported to be greater in cuttings taken from the base of the plant compared to locations higher up the plant [7,23]. Therefore, cuttings from the uppermost part of stock plants may limit transmission of this pathogen and possibly of HLVd, although sufficient data is lacking at the present time for this latter pathogen. Ensuring that cuttings are acclimatized in a transitional environment prior to resuming vegetative growth reduces stress on the rooted plants [38,39].

Several biological control products containing Trichoderma spp. or Gliocladium catenulatum are registered for use on cannabis in Canada [5]. These products are classified as “reduced risk” and provide an alternative in the absence of registered synthetic fungicides. They can be used at all stages of cannabis crop growth but are particularly useful for managing damping-off caused by Fusarium spp. on cuttings. When applied at the vegetative stage of plant growth, they can reduce mortality due to Fusarium and Pythium species [40]. Several weeks after application, the biocontrol agents can be recovered from cannabis tissues, indicating they are able to survive for a period of time (Figure 11). Their effectiveness is based on the protection of tissues, and therefore, they should be applied before pathogen infection occurs, ideally as a drench or as a dip when cuttings are being rooted or as a drench at later stages of crop growth. The benefits of late applications should be evaluated as most biocontrol products are costly to use at large scales. Biocontrol agents protect susceptible root tissues from infection by root pathogens and can colonize cuttings internally, possibly functioning as endophytes; they can potentially enhance root and shoot growth in addition to providing protection against pathogens [40]. Trichoderma spp. also exhibits direct antagonism to F. oxysporum in dual culture (Figure 12). However, the optimal conditions for maximizing the efficacy of registered biocontrol agents in cannabis cultivation remain unexplored. Nevertheless, several biocontrol agents have been demonstrated to be effective against root-infecting pathogens when applied preventatively and in accordance with their label on cannabis plants [40], indicating their adaptability to various environmental conditions.

Root pathogen development in vegetative plants can be minimized by increasing the interval between watering events, leading to fewer and shorter irrigation events as long as adequate moisture is provided for optimal root development. This strategy has been used to reduce root pathogen development in various crops [2]. On the foliage, the exposure of plants to ultraviolet radiation, especially UV-C light (234 nm wavelength), can suppress powdery mildew mycelium development and spore germination when applied routinely at an appropriate dosage with good coverage of the upper leaf surfaces [43]. Night-time exposure enhances pathogen susceptibility by limiting light-activated DNA repair mechanisms [44]. Exposure to UV-C may also enhance plant defense responses, including the accumulation of reactive oxygen species [45], although the effect on cannabis plants has not been determined. To avoid phytotoxicity, exposure of plants to UV-C should be made gradually over several weeks, according to the manufacturer’s guidelines. Treated plants may show a reduction in plant height and increased lateral branching, as has been observed in some ornamental plant species [46,47]. Additional research is required to demonstrate the potential benefits of UV-C exposure to cannabis plants.

Biological control agents can also be applied as drenches to vegetative plants to reduce the severity of root pathogens, similar to treatments made at the propagation stage [40]. The extent to which these agents can survive following application at this stage has not been determined. Colonization of the rapidly growing roots by the biocontrol agent is required for adequate reduction in pathogen development.

The increased plant biomass resulting from plant development during the flowering stage creates challenges for the maintenance of consistent environmental conditions, particularly with regard to ambient humidity. Reducing plant densities can significantly lower humidity levels in the greenhouse and also allow for better light penetration and ease of application of disease control products. However, lower plant densities can decrease overall yield per unit area of production [35,51]. A lower ambient relative humidity can also be achieved by increasing air circulation with circulating fans placed near the plants in the weeks leading up to harvest. Maintaining air movement at 0.5–1.0 m/s appears to be an optimal target for microbial suppression in cannabis [51]. Under experimental conditions, enhanced air flow around maturing inflorescences was demonstrated to significantly reduce the populations of various microbes within the tissues of genotype ‘PH’ (Figure 16). This reduction in humidity, combined with appropriate climate control settings, can mitigate the severity of diseases such as bud rot (B. cinerea) and powdery mildew during high-risk periods. The cost and practicality of this approach during greenhouse production need to be evaluated, but it provides opportunities for disease management in indoor controlled environments.

In relation to seasonal effects on disease development in the greenhouse, B. cinerea bud rot development was shown to be influenced by external vapour pressure deficits that impacted moisture levels in the air and, hence, ambient humidity [35]. To avoid periods of high disease pressure brought on by external environmental conditions, one IDM strategy is to alter the time of seasonal plantings. By scheduling planting and harvest times to avoid periods of high disease pressure brought on by conducive environmental conditions, particularly on desirable but susceptible cannabis genotypes, producers can reduce the impact of seasonal pathogens such as B. cinerea [35], as well as reduce the build-up of total inflorescence microbes that are also impacted by seasonal environmental fluctuations (Figure 17).

An alternative approach to reduce disease development is to harvest inflorescences after a shorter crop development period to avoid prolonged exposure to environmental conditions that favour disease development at the maturation stage. For example, harvesting at 6 weeks of inflorescence development instead of 8 weeks can reduce B. cinerea bud rot incidence but could result in compromised yield and potency in certain genotypes unless they are close to maturity [35,52]. Areas within a greenhouse that have localized disease or “hot spots” should be identified, followed by the eradication of the affected plants to minimize pathogen spread. The location of the diseased plants should be recorded, and if the causal pathogen is unclear, diagnostic testing should be performed, typically through the submission of samples to a diagnostic laboratory [4,7]. In addition to visualization of these areas with the naked eye, the utility of infrared (IR) and artificial intelligence (AI)-powered scouting technologies could be of value as they have been used in a range of other crops [53,54,55,56,57], but further evaluation of how these technologies could be modified for application to cannabis is needed. A discussion of these technologies is presented in Section 2.10.5 and Section 2.10.6 of this article.

The cannabis genotype being grown can have a profound impact on the development of certain pathogens, especially under disease-conducive conditions. The impact of genotypes on disease development at the stock cultivation and propagation stages was described previously. A similar significant effect of genotypes on pathogen infection can also be demonstrated at the flowering stage. A comparison of the response of six genotypes to four pathogens is shown in Figure 18. The genotype ‘LO’ showed high susceptibility to powdery mildew but low susceptibility to HLVd, B. cinerea bud rot and root pathogens. A second genotype, ‘LB’, showed high tolerance to all four pathogens, while the remaining genotypes varied in their response to these specific diseases. These data were collected from observation trials under natural infection and not from replicated trials. They demonstrate, however, that cannabis producers have the option to select those genotypes that show tolerance to several important pathogens under the specific cultivation conditions of greenhouse production. While the genetic basis for this level of tolerance has not been determined, it indicates there is a basis on which to establish breeding programs that can lead to the development of disease-tolerant cannabis cultivars.

As described for cuttings during propagation and during vegetative growth of plants, biological control agents also show promise in reducing specific diseases at the flowering stage of cannabis plants. The diseases of importance that can be targeted are B. cinerea bud rot and powdery mildew. Application of several biological control products and reduced-risk chemicals at weekly intervals as a fine spray, at full label rates, onto developing inflorescences of the genotype ‘PH’ was observed to reduce the development of B. cinerea bud rot under both low and high disease pressure resulting from natural infection during the fall growing season (Figure 19).

The most effective product was Rootshield HC^® (containing Trichoderma harzianum), followed by Regalia^® (Reynoutria sachalinensis), Double Nickel^® (Bacillus amyloliquefaciens), Lifegard^® (Bacillus mycoides), and Prestop^® (Gliocladium catenulatum). Zerotol^® (hydrogen peroxide) did not show an effect (Figure 19). The efficacy of the various biocontrol agents likely stems from their ability to pre-emptively colonize the inflorescence tissues and exert competition against the pathogen, a mode of action also reported on other crops [58,59]. The application of T. harzianum was also found to suppress the development of other microbes naturally present within the inflorescences, including Penicillium spp., and this was reflected by a reduction in all three categories of microbial counts (Figure 20).

Following this spray trial, a second trail demonstrated that applying T. harzianum (Rootshield HC^®) thrice to the foliage of flowering cannabis plants also reduced the development of powdery mildew compared to untreated plants, as shown in Figure 21. These results indicate that a single biological control agent may target two important diseases affecting cannabis, namely B. cinerea bud rot and powdery mildew. Trichoderma applications have been shown to suppress powdery mildew in several crops [60,61,62]. The ease of application of the product and the potential to increase microbial counts in inflorescences of treated plants may determine the extent to which cannabis producers are willing to apply biocontrol agents to flowering plants. The ability of other registered biocontrol products to provide a similar disease suppressive activity needs to be assessed.

A number of reduced-risk products are available for use on cannabis plants at the flowering stage. During this phase of crop development, care must be taken to avoid damage to inflorescence tissues and to avoid visual quality changes. Products, including Agrotek vaporized sulfur^®, Regalia Maxx^®, Suffoil-X^®, and Milstop^®, are registered to reduce powdery mildew development [43]. Sulfur is applied via vaporizing pots, a method that ensures uniform dispersal and is commonly used on many other greenhouse crops [31], while the remainder is applied as sprays. In a comparative study to evaluate these and other products for powdery mildew control on flowering cannabis plants, nine products were applied thrice at days 0, 7, and 14 of the flowering period (~60 mL per plant) during the spring season on ‘MP’, a susceptible cannabis genotype, prior to disease appearance. Subsequently, disease severity was rated visually using a leaf infection coverage scale as follows: 0 = 0%, 1 = 1–33%, 2 = 34–66%, 3 = 67–100% (Figure 22a–d). Results showed that Suffoil-X^® applied at a rate of 10 mL/L and Regalia Maxx^® applied at a rate of 2.5 mL/L were the best preventative products (Figure 22e). In a subsequent trial with the same genotype, flowering plants visibly infected with powdery mildew (disease rating of 1) received one application of seven products at their maximum label rates made at day 42 of the flowering period to evaluate their curative potential. The findings showed that Milstop^® applied at a rate of 3 g/L and Cyclone^® applied at a rate of 12 mL/L were the best for curative treatments (Figure 22f). The remaining products provided varying levels of disease reduction. No phytotoxicity was observed in any of the treatments. The active ingredients in Milstop^® (potassium bicarbonate), Cyclone^® (citric and lactic acid), and Suffoil-X^® (mineral oil) are all considered to be ‘physical’ in their mode of action, altering leaf surface pH and osmotic pressure or desiccating/coating mycelium and spores [6]. The active ingredient in Regalia Maxx^® is an extract from the giant knotweed Reynoutria sachalinensis and was shown to be effective against pathogens such as B. cinerea and powdery mildew on cannabis as well as on various other crops [63,64,65,66]. This product enhances plant defense responses through the salicylic acid (SA)-dependent pathway by inducing the accumulation of plant defense chemicals such as hydrogen peroxide and the formation of mechanical plant defenses such as callose papillae [66,67]. Additional research is needed to explore the breadth to which Regalia Maxx^® can control other pathogens and the duration of the protection offered following application.

A summary of the IDM approaches that can be used against four important pathogens of cannabis is provided in Table 1.

Endophytes, consisting primarily of fungal and bacterial species, are present within various tissues and organs of cannabis and hemp plants and vary in species composition, depending on the tissue source, such as roots, stems, petioles, leaves, flowers, and seeds [37,40,74,75,76]. Various plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria, including species of Bacillus and Pseudomonas, have also been reported to be present in the roots of cannabis plants and can inhibit the growth of root pathogens [40,77]. These endophytes can potentially improve plant growth and development [78,79], although research evaluating their growth benefits in cannabis and hemp plants is currently lacking. Dumigan and Deyholos [37] reported that seed-borne bacterial endophytes, including Bacillus subtilis and B. inaquosorum, showed inhibitory activity in dual culture assays against fungal pathogens, including Alternaria and Fusarium species. These endophytes were also present in hemp seeds and included Bacillus velezensis and Paenibacillus polymyxa, which were also inhibitory to the growth of Alternaria, Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium species in vitro. Pseudomonas species have also shown growth inhibition of Fusarium species in vitro [80]. In previous research, antagonism to B. cinerea in dual culture assays was demonstrated for several cannabis-derived endophytes (Paecilomyces lilacinus and Penicillium spp.) [75] and for several hemp-derived endophytes (Pseudomonas fulva and Pseudomonas orientalis) [80]. In a study conducted by Gabriele et al. [81] investigating the endophytes present in seeds and young plants of a cannabis cultivar, a unique resistance to the plant’s own antimicrobial compounds was discovered, along with an enhancement of nutraceutical aspects such as polyphenol content and antioxidant activity in the plants. This finding suggests the potential for introducing these endophytes as natural biostimulants and biological control agents against pathogenic microbes, unhindered by the plant’s inherent antimicrobial properties. Such symbiotic relationships underscore the potential of endophytes in cannabis cultivation, but further research is needed to establish their potential applications. The antagonistic properties of endophytic bacteria have been attributed to antibiotic production, host defense response induction, growth promotion, competition, parasitism, and quorum signal interference [82,83,84,85]. Despite these promising studies, however, whole plant assays demonstrating the benefits of these bacteria and other fungal endophytes are presently lacking for cannabis. It should be noted that fungal endophytes can also be present in stem tissues of mother plants, including those shown in Figure 24, and they could negatively impact the health of these plants over time and complicate attempts to initiate tissue cultures using explants from these plants [86]. Inoculation of exposed cut surfaces on stems on cannabis plants with these endophytic fungi showed that species of Fusarium, Penicillium and Trichoderma rapidly colonized the tissues internally and were recovered at distances away from the point of inoculation [17]. Fungal endophytes that are consistently present in stems of cannabis plants include species of Penicillium and Chaetomium, as well as others (Figure 24). Bacterial endophytes include species of Bacillus and Pseudomonas [86]. Although commonly recovered from different genotypes of cannabis grown under commercial conditions, the influence of genotype on the frequency of occurrence of these endophytes is unknown. Similarly, the impact of growing conditions, including the substrate used for plant growth, on these internalized microbes has not been determined. Under experimental conditions, the application of a systemic fungicide to growing cannabis plants was shown to reduce the frequency of occurrence of fungal endophytes [86]. This approach was used to reduce the occurrence of endophytic microbes that were encountered as contaminants in tissue culture experiments [86].

Another aspect of potential microbial antagonism against fungal pathogens infecting cannabis that requires research is the diverse microflora that can be present in organic soils compared to conventional hydroponic cultivation. Punja and Scott [87] reported that a diverse range of microbes were recovered from cannabis inflorescences grown in organic soil compared to the cocofibre medium commonly used in hydroponic cannabis production. These communities were comprised of pathogenic, saprophytic, and beneficial microbes. Among the beneficial microbes detected, Trichoderma harzianum and Metharzium anisopliae are currently used as biological control agents for root disease suppression and insect suppression, respectively. M. anisopliae may hold some potential for cannabis pathogen suppression as well [86]. In the context of disease management, similar microbes that originate from organic soils and exhibit general antagonistic properties, such as mycoparasitism, host defense response induction, competition, and antibiotic production, are worthy of evaluation [85,88,89,90]. Cannabis plants grown in ‘living soil’ or growing media amended with ‘compost teas’ may foster greater colonization of roots by these beneficial endophytes, although more research is needed to demonstrate their utility in an IDM program. It is likely that many of these microbes comprise a complex of bacterial species. Caution should be exercised to ensure these microbes do not colonize the inflorescences internally or externally, potentially leading to a failure of the product due to an excessive buildup of microbes.

The tissue culture of cannabis has received considerable recent interest in efforts to obtain a source of clean plant materials that can be free of pathogenic microbes, including fungi, viruses, and viroids. Detailed methods have been described from several laboratories, and various techniques have been described [38,86,91,92]. The interest among cannabis producers in utilizing tissue culture methods is to obtain pathogen-free plants and minimize pathogen re-introduction into commercial production facilities. This is particularly relevant in the context of hop latent viroid, which is known to be spread through vegetative cuttings taken from infected mother plants [26]. Meristem tip culture technology has been used for many decades to eliminate the potential for virus introduction in other vegetatively propagated crops, such as potatoes, bananas, and strawberries [93,94,95]. Meristem and shoot-tip culture techniques have been utilized not only for virus elimination but also for rapid clonal multiplication and germplasm preservation of many vegetatively propagated crops [96,97]. In some cases, these methods are augmented with cryotherapy (cold treatment), thermotherapy (heat treatment), chemotherapy (anti-viral chemical treatment), electrotherapy (electrical current treatment), and shoot-tip grafting (micrografting technique) to enhance the chances of obtaining pathogen-free planting materials [98,99,100,101,102]. Research to evaluate the applicability of these methods to obtain pathogen-free planting materials of cannabis, particularly for HLVd, is still in the early stages of evaluation and development. Tissue culture-derived plants can be obtained from meristems and nodal explants of cannabis, resulting in shoot growth of a number of genotypes in vitro (Figure 25). However, confirmation of the eradication of pathogens of importance requires additional research. Hence, while tissue culture approaches hold promise for potential inclusion in an IDM program for cannabis, more effort to generate high frequencies of plants confirmed to be pathogen-free on an economically feasible scale is needed. The confirmation of pathogen-free planting materials could be utilized for certification programs for cannabis, similar to many agriculturally important crops.

To evaluate new products aimed at managing fungal pathogens in agricultural crops, screening for pathogen growth inhibition is an important first step. For example, effective concentration (EC₅₀) values are determined to establish fungicide levels needed to inhibit 50% of the pathogen’s growth in vitro. However, such studies are less commonly reported for products intended for use on cannabis. EC₅₀ studies, which are relatively straight forward to conduct, as demonstrated in Figure 6, are informative about the potential of new products to inhibit the growth of specific pathogens affecting cannabis, especially when followed by whole plant assays. These studies can also determine if there are any secondary effects on biocontrol fungi, such as Trichoderma spp. (Figure 6). Recent evaluations of products for powdery mildew control in organic hemp production [103] serve to identify products that may be acceptable for registration in cannabis. Such products could be utilized for pathogen control at the stock plant and propagation stages, which are critical to ensure that the subsequent vegetative and flowering stages do not carry over the pathogen inoculum and to reduce concerns about product residues in the finished flower. Currently, the majority of products registered for use on cannabis can be applied up until harvest, as outlined by Scott et al. [5]. Several commercial products have since been added to the registered list that are not included in [5]. For soil fumigation, Pic Plus Fumigant^® (Chloropicrin—85.1%), Chloropicrin 100 Liquid Soil Fumigant^® (Chloropicrin—85.1%), and Mustgrow Crop Biofumigant^® (Oriental Mustard Seed Meal—100%) can be used pre-plant. For powdery mildew suppression, Vegol Crop Oil^® (Canola Oil—96%), Suffoil-X^® (Mineral Oil—80%), Purespray FX (Mineral Oil—80%), and General Hydroponics Suffocoat (Canola Oil—96%) can be applied as foliar sprays. For suppression of B. cinerea, powdery mildew, and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Timorex Gold^® (Tea Tree Oil—23.8%) can be used. For Phytophthora spp. and Verticillium dahlia suppression, Foretryx^® (Trichoderma asperellum strain ICC 012 and Trichoderma gamsii strain ICC 080) can be used. While many of these products are different formulations of the same active ingredient, unique products have been added each year since the legalization of cannabis production in Canada. A current list of registered products can be found at Health Canada—Pesticide Label Search (hc-sc.gc.ca).

Nutrient amendments have been shown to impact plant susceptibility to infection by a range of pathogens, often reducing disease development through various mechanisms. These involve a wide range of macronutrients and micronutrients. In hydroponic greenhouse cultivation, nutrient levels are carefully monitored to prevent deficiencies; thus, additional nutrient supplements must be approached cautiously to avoid phytotoxicity or imbalances. Formulations and rates are critical factors when considering using these nutrient amendments for disease management [104,105]. The use of nutrient supplements containing copper, silicon, and calcium shows particular promise for cannabis and can be applied via the roots or foliage, as discussed below.

Copper has a long history of use as a bactericide and fungicide for various crops against numerous pathogens since the discovery of the ‘Bordeaux mixture’ in 1885. It disrupts fungal cell membrane integrity and interferes with key enzyme activities, thereby inhibiting pathogen growth and survival [106,107]. Copper can be applied to cannabis plants as root zone drenches, foliar sprays, or seed treatments. For instance, Mayton et al. [108] assessed different seed treatments to manage damping-off caused by Pythium and Fusarium species on industrial hemp. Seeds treated with a copper-containing product, Ultim^® at 0.05 mg Cu/seed, showed efficacy that was comparable to fungicide treatments. Moreover, copper nanoparticles have been successfully applied as dips and foliar treatments on tomatoes and watermelons to reduce Fusarium infection [109,110]. A copper formulation, Copper Crop^TM, reduced powdery mildew on melons [111]. This suppression aligns with the conventional use of copper sulfate pentahydrate as a foliar fungicide on plant species such as roses and dogwood [112,113]. On grapevines, copper citrate effectively reduced B. cinerea infections [114]. The diverse range of pathogens suppressed by copper formulations suggests its potential for use in cannabis; however, copper is not currently registered for this purpose.

Silicon is effective against various bacterial, fungal, and viral pathogens, since it can strengthen cell walls via silicon deposits and also induce plant defense responses [115,116]. Scott and Punja [43] reported that multiple weekly sprays of potassium silicate, Silamol^®, on vegetative cannabis plants significantly reduced powdery mildew development. In contrast, three preventative applications made during the flowering stage to a single genotype, showed no effect in the present study (see Figure 22). Akinrinlola et al. [103] reported that Sil-Matrix^®, a fungicide with potassium silicate, significantly reduced hemp powdery mildew by 88%. Dixon et al. [117] demonstrated that root-applied silicon at a rate of 600 kg/ha significantly reduced powdery mildew severity in hemp. Similar benefits of silicon supplementation have been observed in crops such as cucumbers, roses, and strawberries [118,119,120,121,122,123]. Further assessments of silicon-containing products for use in cannabis are needed to establish rates and times of application and demonstrate efficacy against pathogens affecting greenhouse crops.

Calcium application has been shown to reduce pathogen infection by strengthening plant cell walls, thereby providing greater structural integrity against fungal and bacterial infections [124]. However, its effectiveness in reducing pathogens affecting cannabis has not been studied. There are no reports of a direct toxic effect of calcium-containing compounds on fungal pathogens affecting cannabis, suggesting that its action may stem from reducing host susceptibility or through other mechanisms. In some crops, root-zone supplementation of calcium nitrate was reported to reduce B. cinerea severity in beans and tomatoes, although higher doses increased disease in beans [125]. Supplementing roses with calcium nitrate and adding calcium chloride or calcium sulfate to solutions for harvested flowers reduced B. cinerea incidence under conducive disease conditions [126]. Similarly, increasing calcium and reducing nitrogen levels in the irrigation water for sweet basil plants reduced both sporulation and infection severity of B. cinerea [127]. Whether enhanced calcium supplementation can influence the development of B. cinerea in cannabis plants remains to be determined. In addition, its potential for reducing infection by root pathogens such as Fusarium and Pythium should be explored.

The use of recently developed robotic and imaging technologies for scouting for disease presence has garnered interest from cannabis producers. Various options are available with pros and cons, depending on the greenhouse scale, layout, and operations. For small-scale greenhouses, fixed crop monitoring cameras or AI-powered phone scouting apps are often utilized. Several cannabis-focused scouting apps include Koppert’s Natutec Scout app (https://www.koppert.com/natutec-scout/) (accessed on 22 January 2024), BioBest’s Crop-scanner^TM app (https://www.crop-scanner.com/) (accessed on 22 January 2024), GrowDoc AI’s app (https://growdoc.ai/) (accessed on 22 January 2024), and the IPM Scoutek^TM app (https://ipmscoutek.com/) (accessed on 22 January 2024). In contrast, larger greenhouse operations, with a more consistent layout, have trialled autonomous robotic scouting carts or booms with cameras attached to crop carts, such as IUNU’s LUNA AI scouting above-crop cameras or scouting carts (https://iunu.com/luna-ai) (accessed on 22 January 2024), Ecoation’s OKO or ROYA scouting carts (https://www.ecoation.com/integrated-pest-management) (accessed on 22 January 2024), and Budscout AI’s Budscout above-crop cameras (https://budscout.ai/budscout/) (accessed on 22 January 2024). The challenge for AI and imaging solutions currently is that they may not reliably distinguish symptoms caused by various pathogens from nutrient deficiencies and other environmental stressors. Supplemental and tailored training are likely needed to achieve accurate results. In the broader agricultural sector, significant progress is being made in the robot AI-assisted vision space [56]. An example of the training process and customizability of AI scouting technology is demonstrated in the following two studies. Anagnostis et al. [55] aimed to build a fast and accurate object detection system to identify anthracnose-infected leaves (by Colletotrichum spp.) in a commercial walnut orchard. The study involved segmenting high-resolution images into smaller sub-images and training an object detector to recognize disease-specific features. The deep learning approach achieved high accuracy under real-field conditions. Similarly, Mahmud et al. [54] focused on developing an innovative machine vision system to accurately detect powdery mildew in strawberry fields. This system utilized real-time image processing and artificial neural networks (ANNs) to distinguish diseased leaves from healthy ones. The study demonstrated the system’s adaptability to field conditions and showed high accuracy in detecting powdery mildew. These examples point to the potential for applications in integrated disease management and early disease intervention in different agricultural settings.

Infrared imaging (IR), a spectrum used in some remote sensing technologies, identifies variations in crop or leaf temperatures to reflect reduced transpirational activity or metabolic functions, signaling the potential presence of stressors, including disease [53,57,128]. In cannabis, detection of leaf surface temperature changes due to root diseases or poor root development when tested at different developmental stages can be captured with handheld devices such as a FLIR E8 Pro^TM infrared camera (https://www.flir.ca/products/e8-pro/?vertical=condition+monitoring&segment=solutions) (accessed on 10 January 2024). This method showed definitively that poorly developed root systems on affected plants were correlated directly with a reduced rate of transpiration and, hence, a build-up of leaf surface temperature that was detectable with the IR camera (Figure 26).

However, when powdery mildew-infected plants or cannabis plants affected by hop latent viroid were similarly compared to healthy plants using an IR camera, these plants did not show a corresponding reduced transpirational activity pattern, suggesting that the IR camera was unable to detect physiological changes in these diseased plants. It is unknown whether infrared or other spectrums could be used to effectively detect hop latent viroid; limited research has been carried out on virus detection with infrared, but there may be potential applications [129,130]. Vagelas et al. [131] utilized a low-cost infrared camera and a standard RGB web camera to analyze vine, chrysanthemum and rose leaves that had been infected with various fungi. Results showed that infected leaves exhibited temperature deviations from uninfected ones, which occurred before visible symptoms developed. Specifically, infected vine and rose leaves showed a decrease in temperature, while chrysanthemum and another set of rose leaves demonstrated an increase, compared to healthy tissue. Lindenthal et al. [132] used infrared thermography to detect downy mildew infection in cucumbers. In controlled environments, the study showed that the maximum temperature difference in a leaf could be used to distinguish between healthy and infected tissues. Under natural environments, while leaf temperatures and transpiration rates were similar in both healthy and infected plants, diseased leaves showed more varied transpiration rates depending on the severity of the symptoms. Liaghat et al. [133] utilized Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy to detect Ganoderma infections in oil palm trees. This method involved analyzing leaf samples from both healthy and infected trees, examining the infrared spectra of these samples, and using a statistical model for classification. The researchers successfully identified differences linked to the disease, accurately identifying infected trees at early, symptomless stages. Therefore, there is a growing body of evidence to demonstrate that IR approaches could be applied to cannabis for early detection of infection by foliar pathogens, but additional studies are required to validate this approach.

The use of “electronic nose systems” (e-nose systems), also known as electronic olfactory systems, for the early detection and diagnosis of plant diseases across various crops is receiving increased attention. The technology involves multiple sensors sensitive to a variety of volatile compounds that generate electrical signals upon exposure to these molecules, which are then digitized and analyzed using machine learning-based pattern recognition algorithms. By leveraging the unique volatile organic compound (VOC) signatures emitted by plants under disease stress, the technology compares detected patterns to known odour profiles to identify the presence and intensity of diseases in an air sample. This approach has demonstrated potential for the early detection and diagnosis of plant diseases across various crops, providing a rapid, non-invasive, and field-deployable solution [53,134,135]. However, despite its advantages in non-destructive and bulk sampling, e-nose technology is considered less sensitive and specific than traditional diagnostics like PCR, suggesting its role is currently best suited as a supplementary tool in an IDM diagnostics program rather than a stand-alone solution [136]. Numerous proof-of-concept studies have applied different methodologies to detect specific pathogen-induced VOC signatures. The Bloodhound^® ST214′s efficacy in detecting disease presence by analyzing VOCs emitted by tomato plants infected with powdery mildew (Oidium neolycopersici) in greenhouse settings compared to healthy controls was demonstrated [137]. Similarly, a low-cost, portable e-nose combined with machine learning algorithms was used to accurately detect Fusarium oxysporum in tomato plants and soil samples [138], while Sun et al. [139] were successful in detecting B. cinerea infection in tomatoes. A PEN 3, Win Muster Air-sense Analytics E-nose was used to identify infections caused by three fungi—Botrytis spp., Penicillium spp., and Rhizopus spp.—in strawberries [140]. A custom-built e-nose device was used for early detection of fungal infections in garlic, distinguishing between garlic infected by different fungi (Fusarium oxysporum, Alternaria embellisia, and Botrytis allii) [141]. Hazarika et al. [142] utilized the Alpha MOSFOX 3000 e-nose system to identify Khasi Mandarin orange plants infected by citrus tristeza virus (CTV) with high accuracy by analyzing essential oils extracted from leaves. These studies collectively highlight the versatility of e-nose systems in agricultural applications, underscoring their potential utility in diagnosing cannabis diseases. However, to date, there have been no studies to demonstrate whether pathogen-induced volatile compounds can be separated from the natural constituents present in healthy cannabis plants and whether this technology can be used for early disease prediction.

The potential for inducing plant defense responses before pathogen infection has not yet been developed to a practical level for cannabis. However, as discussed earlier, Regalia Maxx (Reynoutria sachalinensis), when applied to cannabis plants, can reduce pathogens such as B. cinerea and powdery mildew, confirming reports in the literature of the efficacy through presumed induction of defense responses and pathogen reduction [63,64,65,66,67]. Weekly applications are recommended to ensure the ongoing protection of cannabis plants. The role of endophytic microbes in the growing medium in promoting plant health and reducing pathogen infection in cannabis awaits more research. Previous reports demonstrated the defense-boosting properties of endophytic organisms on various plant species [82,83,84,85,143]. The utility of a biological control product containing Trichoderma spp. appears to be promising when applied preventatively to the root zone or to inflorescences; however, additional research is necessary to establish whether the induction of defense responses in cannabis can be confirmed as it has been in previous studies on numerous plants [144,145]. The application of compounds such as salicylic acid and jasmonic acid to cannabis plants to potentially induce disease resistance is worthy of study.